Hmong Spirituality and Cultural Ceremonies 

By Bee Yang 

 

Introduction/Overview 

Modern-day technology and social media, such as online videos, allow community members to collect and share Hmong oral histories and connect to cultural heritage on a global scale. Before the advent of online and digital technologies, however, one would have to sit down in person with an elder to access the rich accounts of oral history in Hmong cultures. This chapter will provide classroom teachers with an overview of some of the spiritual and cultural ceremonies in Hmong communities. This narrative will equip educators with a strong foundation to support their students’ understanding of some of Hmong cultural practices. The narrative serves to make the Hmong History and Cultural Studies Model Curriculum accessible to educators by providing them with background knowledge on Hmong cosmology, shamanism system, spirituality system, Hmong cultural and traditional values, and Christianity. This chapter will answer questions including: 

• What are the different ways that people in Hmong communities enact their spiritual ties? 
• What is Shamanism? How do many people in the Hmong communities practice Shamanism? 
• What are some of the central oral stories shared in Hmong communities? How are the stories interpreted in current contexts?
• How do Western belief systems inform these practices?
• How many people in the Hmong community practice Christianity? Why do many people from Hmong communities practice Christianity?
• How does Christianity conflict with Hmong Spirituality?

Hmong Cosmology

Hmong people view and understand the world through the lenses of both physical and spiritual forms. The physical forms are those you can see, feel or touch, such as the land, mountains, valleys, rivers, lakes, trees, clouds, and sky. The spiritual forms refer to good spirits and evil spirits. Each physical form is claimed by both the good and evil spirits. These spirits live among and interchange with mankind's physical and body spirits as well.   

The Hmong people believe that both physical and spiritual forms live among each other in this world. Therefore, the rule of thumb is for good spirits, evil spirits, and mankind to respect one another. For example, if the Hmong people build a dam to block a river, they will normally ask permission from the river’s spirit owner by communication through a shaman. The shaman will go to the location of the river and communicate to the river spirit for permission, or to pay for a permit to build the dam. In another example, when the Hmong people build their houses, each family will ask the shaman to come and communicate with the spiritual land owner of that location to buy or pay for the permit to build the house. Today, Hmong communities around the globe continue to practice this tradition, and they still ask the shaman to provide an annual health protection insurance called (Fiv Yeem Xyoo) from the four corners goddess, the wind goddess, the thunder goddess, the state and the city, or regional goddess.    

The Hmong have a communication system that operates through the shaman and other spiritual leaders that enables them to interact with all of the spirit forms. The Hmong shaman uses the split horns from the water buffalo or cow as a communication tool. The shaman cut the top part of each horn about six inches and split it in half. After communicating with the spirits to agree on certain issues, the shaman throws the split horn into the ground.  If both sides face up, this is interpreted as an expression of agreement. However, if both sides face down, this means that the spirits disagree.

In Hmong culture there is a great variety of origin stories that provide explanations for earthly happenings. Hmong worldviews originated from legendary oral storytelling that was passed down from generation to generation and referred to as “The Creation of the World” (Thoj, 2018). In the Hmong language it is called “Ntuj Tsim Teb Raug.” According to many oral accounts, the Goddess couple called Pu Soa and Yer Soa (Puj Saub and Yawm Saub) created the whole world. They both agreed they would spend seven years to complete the creation of the universe. Since Pu Soa was more skillful in the beauty of natural creation, Pu Sao created the landscape. Since Yer Sao was stronger in strength, Yer Soa created the Sky. Pu Sao completed her creation of the land and Yer Soa completed his creation of the sky. Pu Sao created a land flat like a pizza and Yer Sao created the sky in the shape of a bowl. They tried to put the bowl-shaped sky on top of the land so that it could complete their creation of a universal world. However, they ran into a major problem: the land was much wider and larger than the sky. To fit the land into the bottom of the bowl-shaped sky, they had to push the land into a smaller size. In the process of pushing, the land morphed into a smaller size to fit the sky, and the land became wrinkled. Therefore, all the mountains, valleys, and hills of the landscape today were the wrinkles that were created by Pu Soa and Yer Sao when they pushed the land into a smaller size during the creation of the world. After the Goddess couple completed the creation of the whole world, they assigned supernatural powers to seven Goddesses with the following powers:

• Theeb Tswv (Theng Chue), Goddess of environmental supernatural powers 
• Xob Laug (Xor Loa), Goddess of weather and seasonal powers 
• Ntxug Nyoog (Chue Nyong), Goddess of all evil death spirits for life cycles powers
• Siv Yis (She Yee), Goddess of healing spirituality and healing powers 
• Zaj Laug (Za Loa), Goddess of rain, water, sea and ocean powers
• Cim Kaws (Chi Ker), Goddess of creation powers
• Niam Nkauj Kab Yeeb (Nia Gao Kaying), possession of overall re-incarnation spiritualities powers

After the Goddess couple successfully created the whole world, there was no light, no water, no air, no disease, no illness, and no death. The Goddess couple told their son, Cim Ker, to blow bubbles into the sky to create all the stars, the sun, and the moon. When there were lights, the couple grabbed a very deep clay from the heart of the mountains to create all kinds of creations for both living things and nonliving things in the world. The couple asked both Za Loa and Xor Lao to release air and pressure throughout the whole world so that all living things and nonliving things could come to life.  

After this, there was light, air, water, living things, and nonliving things that existed in the world. The Goddess couple went back to rest at the ninth level of the sky called Cuaj Tshooj Ntug in order to manage and govern the movements of the whole universe. The Father grabbed the clay from the heart of the mountain to create his own image and asked the power of the air to assist. The clay image turned into the first man. The Mother grabbed the deep clay from the heart of the mountain to create an image of her and asked the power of the air to assist in creating the first woman, but this woman could not breathe. The Goddess couple looked at the man’s image that he created; they saw that the heart was pumping in the chest of the man. They grabbed a piece of the man’s liver and gave it to the woman’s image, which allowed her to breathe and come to life as the first woman. The Goddess couple named the first woman Nia Gao Ia (Niam Nkauj Iab) and named the first man in the world Chi Dao Ong (Txiv Nraug Oo). Nkauj Iab and Txiv Nraug Oo were assigned by the Goddess couple to be in charge and govern the earth on their behalf.  

The first human couple, Nkauj Iab and Txiv Nraug Oo, lived on earth for seven years and gave birth to two sons. Cim Tuj was the elder son and Cim Nplug was  the younger son. When Cim Tuj and Cim Nplug were fully grown, they asked Niam Nkauj Iab and Txiv Nraug Oo, “How big is the whole wide universe?” Their parents advised them that only Cim Kaws Goddess knew the answer to this question because she created all of the stars, the sun, and the moon to heat up the whole wide world. Cim Tuj and Cim Nplug went to ask Cim Kaws how big and how tall the whole wide world was. Cim Kaws asked them to come back in three days so she could answer their questions. They came back after three days and Cim Kaws was still unable to provide the answers. Cim Kaws lied to CimTuj and Cim Nplug and stated that the whole wide world was very small. They went to consult with the Eagle King and asked him to fly over the whole wide world to see how big it was. The Eagle King flew for three years and was unable to reach north to south or west to east. Cim Tuj and Cim Nplug got so mad that they went back to kill Cim Kaws. For that reason, Cim Kaws put a curse upon all mankind in which her death would mark the death of all mankind on earth. Next, she traveled back into the ninth level, where the Goddess resided. The Goddess sent Cim Kaws to live on the moon and, for this reason, you can still see the shadows of a tree and frog on the moon on crystal-clear nights.   

Two Separate Worlds: Yang Cheng and Yeng Cheng

According to oral traditions in Hmong communities, the Creators made two separate worlds: the physical world and the spiritual world. These domains co-existed to allow for the reincarnation of human beings. Yang Cheng is the physical world that governs all the physical living things that spirits exist in this physical world including human beings. Meanwhile, Yeng Cheng is the spiritual world that governs all death spirits within the death world. Yang Cheng spirits are considered good spirits that will help Shamans and men when asking for protection. Yeng Cheng spirits are considered the evil spirits that cause illness and death for all living things in this world, including human beings. The good spirits are governed by Siv Yees (She Yee), the fourth Goddess, and the evil spirits are governed by Ntxwg Nyoog, the third Goddess (Chue Nyong). 

Shamanism System    

While there is an ongoing debate about how Hmong religious practices should be classified, Shamanism is the terminology most often used to refer to these traditions. Traditional Hmong religion is animistic (based on spirits) and involves the belief in ancestor worship. The Hmong people have practiced shamanism for a long time.  Based on personal accounts and experience from a culture bearer, about 70% of the Hmong people living in the United States still hold strong onto their shamanism practice (B. Yang, personal communication, December 14, 2023). Many younger generations carry on their parent’s beliefs and practices. Due to the lack of familiarity and the anti-shamanism engendered in Western Christian societies, shamanism is often practiced in ways that do not align with traditional beliefs. Therefore, the interpretation of shamanism practices can be lost or changed from its original intent. Shamanism has adapted to the laws and cultures wherein people in Hmong communities practice.    

According to Hmong oral history accounts, the original shaman has a name called Siv Yis (Sheyee). Sheyee is the second son of the creator’s couple they sent down to earth to save their older son Ntxwg Nyoog. There is a great oral shaman legend that talks about how shamans came about from the very beginning of time. The Goddess couple Puj Saub and Yawm Saub (the Creators) created the universe from the beginning of time. After the Creators made the universe, the Earth became the most beautiful realm of all. The Creator wanted to save Earth for a vacation home and retirement. Therefore, they used dirt from the earth to create mankind in the form of the Creators’ images and sent mankind to occupy, protect, and save earth to wait for the day when they will come to rest and retire on earth.

When the Creators sent mankind to Earth, the Earth was already possessed and controlled by the Evil Queen called Niam Tais Poj Dab. The Evil Queen was extremely powerful and began destroying all of mankind on Earth: from north to south and west to east. Puj Saub and Yawm Saub had no choice but to give all of the major magic powers to their oldest son, named Ntxwg Nyoog, and send him to earth to stop the Evil Queen. The Evil Queen was so strong that her magic powers were able to possess Ntxwg Nyoog before he reached the earth. After he was possessed, the Evil Queen turned him into her most evil monster and destroyer of mankind on earth. When the Creators noticed their oldest son was in trouble, they sent their youngest son, named Siv Yis, and his cousin, Sub Tuam, to rescue both Ntxwg Nyoog and mankind from the Evil Queen. 

The Evil Queen was so powerful that she turned into the most beautiful princess and married Sub Tuam. When Siv Yis and Sub Tuam arrived to earth, the Evil Queen used Sub Tuam as a roadblock to block Siv Yis’s mission. Every time Siv Yis goes to rescue his brother, Ntxug Nyoog, Sib Tuam was always in Siv Yis’s way, and this sparked a battle between Siv Yis and Sib Tuam. This battle was known as the war between Mankind and the Evil Queen. According to the legend, Siv Yis won this war in the end, but he lost his older brother Ntxwg Nyoog and his only son in the process. Therefore, Siv Yis did not want to stay on earth. He wanted to go back home and re-reunite with his parents, the Creators. When Siv Yis left earth, he released all of his powers, magics, and tools to fight evil in the sky and space. He said, “Mankind who has a pearl good heart to love and save mankind from the Evil Spirits will be chosen by the most powerful of Siv Yis powers called ‘Qhua Neeb Siv Yis’”

She Yee Goddesses

The Creator made She Yee Goddesses to govern and ensure the fairness and equity of death, and dying as a reincarnation process. Therefore, She Yee Goddesses must choose a human being to be the shaman to go between man and all spirits, good and evil. The shaman’s role and responsibilities are similar to those of a lawyer representing a defendant. The shaman must make sure the prosecutor is fair throughout the process of death and dying. If the Death Goddess, Ntxwg Nyoog, wants to prosecute the life of a human being for “the death sentence,” the shaman must call upon all other Goddesses, including the Creators, as witnesses to make sure it is a time to let this individual human’s body turn into clay/dirt/ashes. This act will release all the spirits of the human’s body to the Niam Kab Yeeg Goddesses to possibly be re-assigned through the reincarnation process of death and birth. 

Niam Nkauj Kab Yeng Goddesses

These Goddesses are responsible for overseeing the reincarnation process to make sure every single individual human being who comes through is eligible and qualified. There are several criteria, such as Ntawv Noj Ntawv Haus, which is equivalent to today’s international traveler’s visa and passport. This spiritual document of Ntawv Noj Ntawv Haus holds the traveling information from Yang Cheng Teb to Yeng Cheng Ntuj. Information includes traveling dates, times, and gate fees equivalent to an airline ticket. It also serves as proof of taxes paid for the use of land, air, and water, and evidence of the agreements by bedroom spirits, fireplace spirits, the XueKa spirits, the house’s four corner spirits, door spirits, and the house’s spirits.  

Spirituality System

When the Creator created all living things and nonliving things from the sky to the earth, from the rain to the ocean, from the mountain to the valley, from the river to the pond and lake, from trees to the rocks, and from the air to the cloud, they all have their own dominion and spirits to protect them as assigned by the Creator. Many people from Hmong communities believe that the human body is supported by the three parts of a human being: the souls, the spirits, and the body (Rice, 2000). The souls, the spirits, and the body co-exist through the process of birth and reincarnation. All parts of the human body are governed and cared for by individual souls and spirits of their own parts such as head, leg, arms, ears, eyes, hairs…etc. The human body will expire, die, and turn into ashes because the Creator of mankind used clay from the heart of the mountain to create the human body.  However, the souls and spirits of each body part never die or expire. Therefore, the souls and the spirits of a dead body will have to be recycled to the next life by Niam Nkauj Kab Yee and reassigned into a new body through the Txoj Kev Mus Thawj Thiab, or the Reincarnation Process.  

Because of this, Hmong believe that the body parts of a newborn baby are young, but the souls and the spirits of the newborn are possibly much older and mature than the parents who gave birth to the child. Therefore, if the birth parents are unable to accept any conditions that are born with the baby, the souls and spirits of the newborn will sense this and feel offended (Rice, 2000). When this happens, the spirits and souls are no longer willing to govern and protect the baby’s body parts. As a result, the baby may become sick often and potentially die. When this happens, the parents will have to ask the shaman to enter their house and perform a ritual to communicate with the baby’s souls and spirits. The shaman will apologize and promise these spirits and souls that the parents will love and accept the newborn baby exactly as he/she is. The shaman will endeavor to please the body’s spirits and souls so that they return to guard the baby’s physical and spiritual health once again.  

Hmong Cultural and Tradition Values Systems

 Hmong people have great respect for parents, the elderly, older siblings, authorities, spiritualities, mother nature, and family. Hmong culture and traditional value systems derive from the Hmong term Niam Txiv Kwv Tij Neej Tsa, which translates to “kinship system.” These values also come from supernatural Goddesses and the practice of shamanism. Kwv Tij Neej Tsa, defined as kinship, explains Hmong traditional values through the clan systems. The term Kwv Tij is from the father’s side of the family, and Neej Tsa is from the mother’s side of the family. Marriage between members of the same clan – no matter how distant the relationship – is strictly forbidden. When Hmong community members are married, the new couple do not just marry one another; they also have obligations to each and every relative on both sides of the family. Hmong people are not individualistic but, rather, identify with a strong sense of group belonging.

According to Christine Wilson Owens (2007), Hmong family and kinship structures are based on marriage and descent. The Hmong are a patrilineal society with extended households of married sons and their families. The clan is the primary form of social organization, and clan membership is passed from father to child through birth or adoption. The number of clans is commonly said to be 18 (listed below) with 12 of these considered to be the main groups. 

1. Chang (Cha)
2. Cheng
3. Chue (Chu)
4. Fang
5. Hang
6. Her (Herr or Heu)
7. Khang
8. Kong
9. Kue
10.  Lee (Le or Ly)
11.  Lor (Lo)
12.  Moua (Mua)
13.  Pha
14.  Thao (Thor)
15.  Vang (Va)
16.  Vue (Vu)
17.  Xiong
18.  Yang (Ya)

Hmong Family Clan Functions

Traditionally, the clans provided any type of social service that their members required. Every clan included skilled persons who served as healers, marriage brokers, teachers, and disciplinarians. Fellow clan members regard each other as brothers and sisters. In times of need, individuals look first to the clan, and the clan is obligated to respond. Clans also offer security. The larger the clan, the more services it can offer its membership, and this can include assistance finding housing and employment. Owens (2007) shares that in the United States, Hmong clans and extended families often draw their dispersed members to larger and more established communities. Overall, the clans exist to provide social support, legal authority, and economic security.

Christian System

For many in Hmong communities, Christianity came to families during times of hardship. Families were sponsored to come to the United States by churches to recruit newcomers to become Christian. Through this recruitment process, Christian missionaries often shared their opposition to shaman practice and asked families to remove their shaman altars. These experiences caused family upheaval and at times intergenerational differences. Many popular depictions of the disappointment faced by Hmong families struggling to practice their faith of shamanism in America can be found in films such as The Split Horn: The Life of a Hmong Shaman in America (Sigel, 2001) and The Canary Effect: Kill the Indian, Save the Man (Davey & Yellow Thunder Woman, 2006). As educators embrace culturally sustaining practices, students who engage in non-western belief systems will be less likely to feel the repercussions that many Hmong refugees felt when confronted with cultures in the United States.

According to Her (2018), the most successful and well-known attempt to spread the gospel to the Hmong in Asia was by a priest named Yves Bertrais. Ordained at the age of 25, Yves left France for Laos and was given the choice to preach to Lao, Dao, Mien or Miao (Hmong). He chose to preach to the Hmong and sought refuge in the village of Kiu Katiam (Roob Nyuj Quj). He documented Hmong religion, history, culture, and songs extensively. Researchers believe that there were many reasons why Hmong families converted to Christianity. For example,  if a family member was sick and could not be healed using Shaman rituals, the Hmong turned to a Father for prayers and Western medicine (Her, 2018). This was one of many small steps that ultimately led to conversion. Father Bertrais, later given the name Txiv Plig Nyiaj Pov, also co-created a Hmong Text RPA, derived from the Romanized Popular Alphabet, to teach Hmong.

Among the Hmong communities in the various U.S. states, some people have embraced Christianity over the past 50 years, while others have remained faithful to the traditional belief in Shamanism. ReligionsMN estimates that up to 50% of Hmong people in the United States are Christian (Her, Moua, Gick, Vang, and McKinstry). According to the Star Tribune (2021), both Christianity and Shamanism are represented in the Hmong community. Initially, Hmong embraced Christianity because they were poor and the missionaries brought them food and clothing. Some believe that Christianity has benefitted the Hmong and brought them toward spirituality and cultural advancement. Even though many Hmong have become Christians, some believe that Shamanism will continue to grow and that the adoption of Christianity will not change the ways that Hmong people eat, dress, or live.

Content and Historical Overview For the Purpose of Expanded Learning Ideas  

Gandy and Matthew (2010) assert that the themes evident in origin and cultural stories can significantly enrich the social studies curriculum by showing students how cultural practices and contexts impact the behaviors of diverse peoples. Classroom teachers may consider developing classroom lessons for connections and relevance to various grade levels to help students understand and engage with the content sessions found below. By integrating concepts and vocabulary relating to names of goddesses, creators, cultural value systems, kinships, family structures, and genograms, as well as Shamanism and Christianity belief systems, instructors can assist in developing culturally appropriate curricula for students.

In Area of Study 1: Hmong Ways of Knowing, the following lessons touch upon the themes of Hmong spirituality and cultural ceremonies: 

• Introduction to Hmong Family Practices and Values: This lesson explores the representation of Hmong beliefs about family and society through an examination of ceremonial practices and oral traditions. Students will have a foundational understanding of Hmong ways of knowing, being, and doing.
• Hmong Family Practices and Values - Birth: This lesson explores representations of Hmong beliefs regarding family and society through an examination of birth practices. Students will gain an understanding of Hmong ways of knowing, being, and doing around the importance of naming children in Hmong families.
• Hmong Family Practices and Values - Marriage: This lesson explores Hmong marriage practices. Students will analyze descriptions of ceremonial wedding practices in Hmong culture, specifically the symbolism of wedding artifacts. Students will also analyze the representation of gender roles within Hmong marriage practices. This offers opportunities for discussion around issues of patriarchal and colonial systems in Hmong marriage practices past and present. 
• Hmong Family Practices and Values - Death and Funeral Rituals: This lesson explores Hmong beliefs about death and reincarnation through an examination of ceremonial practices and oral traditions. Students will gain an understanding of the connections between birth, marriage, and funerals.

Session I: Hmong World View of Cosmology

Vocabulary and Concepts:

1.  Ntuj Tsim Teb Raug The Creation of the Universe 
2. Puj Saub The Grandmother of creation  
3. Yawm Saub The Grandfather of Creation 
4. Lub Ntiaj Teb The Universe 
5. Lub Ntuj Sky 
6. Daim Av Land 
7. Roob Mountains 
8. Hav Valleys 
9. Dej Rivers 
10.  Hluav Taws Fire 
11.  Huab Cloud 
12.  Cua Wind 
13.  Xyoob Bamboo 
14.  Ntoo Wood 
15.  Paj Flower 
16.  Txiv Fruit 

*Note:  Teacher and student can add words or vocabulary to this list

Names, Roles, and Responsibilities of all Goddesses

1. Theeb Tswv (Theng Chue), Goddesses of environmental supernatural powers 
2. Xob Laug (Xor Loa), Goddesses of weather and seasonal powers 
3. Ntxug Nyoog (Chue Nyong), Goddesses of all evil death spirits for life cycles powers
4. Siv Yis (She Yee), Goddesses of healing spirituality healing powers 
5. Zaj Laug (Za Loa), Goddesses of rain, water, sea and ocean powers
6. Cim Kaws (Chi Ker), Goddesses of overall creation powers
7. Niam Nkauj Kab Yeeb (Nia Gao Kaying), possesses general powers of spirituality and reincarnation 

Session II: Spirituality Systems 

Vocabulary and Concepts: 

1. Ntsuj Soul
2. Plig Spirit 
3. Dab Nyeg Good Spirit (Good Guardian angels) 
4. Dab Qus Evil Spirit 
5. Dab Vaj Dab Tsev House Spirits 
6. Dab Qhov Cub Fire Spirit
7. Txhiaj Meem Door Spirit
8. Qhua Neeb Shaman Spirit 
9. Dab Ntuj Sky Spirit
10.  Dab Teb Land Spirit

Session III: Shamanism Systems

 Vocabulary and Concepts:

1. Txiv Neeb Male Shaman 
2. Niam Neeb Female Shaman 
3. Qhua Neeb Qhua Yaig Shaman spirits 
4. Siv Yis Neeb Original Shaman name by She Yee (Shaman Princess)
5. Txoov Siv Yis Neeb Original Shaman Master’s name (Shaman King) 
6. Tsua Maj Tsua Mog Neeb The Shaman spirits palace 
7. Leej Nkaub The Shaman Leader (General Shaman Spirit) 
8. Peeb Zeej Peeb Muas The Shaman spirit army (soldiers)
9. Xwm Kab House spirits in charge of family’s wealth and health 
10.   Txhiaj Meej Door Guardians or Protection spirits 
11. Dab Vaj Dab Tsev House spirits 
12.  Poj Koob Yawm Txwv Grandparents’ spirits 
13.  Dab Txeej Dab Qus Outsider evil spirits 
14.  Ntsuj Duab Ntsuj Plig Human souls and spirits 

*Note: Teachers and students can add to the list here 

Session IV: Hmong Cultural and Tradition Values Systems 

Vocabulary and Concepts:

1. Kwv Tij Neej Tsa Brother and cousin from both parents’ families’ sides  
2. Nkauj Muam Nraug Nus All sisters and brothers’ cousins 
3. Phooj Ywg Friend 
4. Niam Mother 
5. Txiv Father 
6. Tub Son 
7. Ntxhais Daughter
8. Muam Sister for brother
9. Viv Ncaus Sister for sister 
10.  Niam Tub Mother and son 
11.  Txiv Tub Father and son 
12.  Niam thiab Txiv Parents (Mom and Dad)
13.  Pog Grandmother 
14.  Yawg Grandfather 
15.  Niam Tais Maternal grandmother 
16.  Yawm Txiv Maternal grandfather 
17.  Dab Laug Maternal uncle 
18.  Niam Dab Laug Maternal aunty 
19.  Txiv Hlob Older uncle 
20.  Niam Hlob Older aunty 
21.  Txiv Ntxawm Younger uncle 
22.  Niam Ntxawm Younger aunty 

*Note: Teacher and student can add the list from here

Kinship System, Family Tree, and Vocabulary List:

Paternal Side:

1. Pog Koob thiab Yawg Koob Great grandparents

2. Pog Koob Great grandmother

3. Yawg Koob Great grandfather  

4. Pog thiab Yawg Grandparents (Grandma and Grandpa)

5. Yawg Grandfather

6. Pog Grandmother  

7. Niam thiab Txiv Parents (Mom and Dad)

8. Txiv Father  

9. Niam Mother

10. Kwv Tij Brother(s)

11. Tij laug Older brother  

12. Kwv Younger brother  

13. Muam Sister for the boy sibling

14. Viv Ncaus Sister for the girl sibling

15. Muam Hlob Older sister for the boy sibling

16. Niam Laus Older sister for the girl sibling

17. Muam Yau Younger sister for the boy sibling 

18. Niam Hluas Younger sister for the girl sibling

18. Xeeb Ntxwv Nephews (and nieces)

Maternal Side:

1. Niam Tais Tawm Txiv Maternal Grandparents

2. Yawm Txiv Maternal Grandfather  

3. Niam Tais Maternal Grandmother

4. Dab Laug Maternal Uncle

5. Niam Dab Laug Maternal Aunt

6. Kwv Tij, Kwv Npawg, Viv Ncaus Cousin

Session V: Christianity System

Vocabulary and Concepts: 

1. Tswv Yexus Jesus Christ 
2. Tswv Ntuj God 
3. Xiv Fwb Pastor 
4. Cov ntseeg Yexus Believers  
5. Cov Hluas Youth group  
6. Tsev Teev Hawm Church temple 
7. Txwj Laug Boardmember 
8. Thawj Tswj President 
9. Hnub mus teev hawm Vaj Tswv Sunday School 
10.  Hu Nkauj Vaj Tswv Singing Christian Song 
11.  Thov Vaj Tswv Praying for God 
12.  Tseeg Vaj Tswv Belief in God 

Conclusion

Religion continues to be an important cultural influence in Hmong communities. Gandy and Matthew (2010) maintain that depriving students of an education that deals with religious issues denies them an understanding of how religion is part of the human experience. To fully grasp the contexts and meanings of diverse cultures and historical events, students must grapple with the roles of religion and spirituality in human life. Naturally, teachers must understand the difference between teaching about religion and religious indoctrination. Religious stories, contexts, and terminologies can be examined as expressions of a given society or culture. By linking traditional stories to conversations about culture and society, we can create a learning environment that facilitates a deeper understanding of the self and others. At a minimum, educators can center Hmong cultural practices during Asian American Pacific Islander Heritage Month, Veterans Holiday, and Hmong New Year, as well as appropriate local holidays. Educators may also make connections with local Hmong communities through farming seasons such as harvest. Educators might assign personal biographies so that students may conduct family interviews to develop family trees and write accounts of farming skills, ancestral knowledge, family recipes, and life events such as birth, soul calling, shamanism, and wedding and funeral ceremonies. As teachers and students learn about one another, educators will be able to better serve students coming from ever diverse communities.

References

Davey, R., & Yellow Thunder Woman. (Directors). (2006). The canary effect: Kill the Indian, save the man [Film]. Bastard Fairy Films.

Gandy, S. K., & Matthew., K. (2010). Origin stories: Geography, culture, and belief. Social Studies and the Young Learner, 22(4), 25–28. https://www.socialstudies.org/system/files/publications/articles/yl_220425.pdf 

Her, L. (2014). Catholic & Hmong (History of the Catholic Church in Laos & Hmong RPA). Txhawb Hmong California Directory, 98-102. https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/176aBQHSv8sx-lcAbTNSK-I-QIW8vV3uh?usp=drive_link 

Her, K., Moua, Y., Gick, J., Vang, I., and McKinstry, E. (n.d.). Hmong religiosity and shamanism in the Twin Cities. ReligionsMN. https://religionsmn.carleton.edu/exhibits/show/hmong-religiosity/hmong-religiosity-and-shamanis 

Owens, C. W. (2007, June 1). Hmong. EthnoMed. https://ethnomed.org/culture/hmong/#:~:text=Hmong%20people%20are%20traditionally%20not,for%20elders%20and%20strong%20families  

Hmong District App. (n.d.). Our story. https://www.hmongdistrict.org/our-story 

Siegel, T. (Director). (2001). Split horn: The life of a Hmong shaman in America [Video/DVD]. Collective Eye Films. 

Star Tribune. (2001, February 10). Both christianity and shamanism represented in Hmong community. Harvard University: Pluralism Project Archive. https://hwpi.harvard.edu/pluralismarchive/news/both-christianity-and-shamanism-represented-hmong-community  

ReligionsMN. (n.d.). What is Hmong shamanism? https://religionsmn.carleton.edu/exhibits/show/hmong-religiosity/hmong-shamanism/what-is-hmong-shamanism- 

Rice, P. L. (2000). Baby, souls, name and health: traditional customs for a newborn infant among the Hmong in Melbourne. Early Hum Dev., 57(3),189-203. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-3782(99)00062-6

Thoj, K. (2018, July 23). Dab neeg: ntuj tsim noob neej los nyob nriaj teb [Video]. YouTube. Retrieved November 7, 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BR3FzJB6obs