Introduction and Overview 

By Thong Vang

 

This study area chapter delves into the influence of geographical context and historical migrations on HMoob individual and collective identities. It aims to provide educators with valuable insights to better connect with their diverse students and communities. The area of study encompasses model lessons that cover complex topics such as identity, belonging, and resistance to oppression. These subjects are covered in the lessons “The Survival and Resilience of Hmong People”; practices and values on birth, marriage, death and funeral rituals, synthesized in a mini-unit of four lessons “Introduction to Hmong Family Practices and Values”; and family narratives shared through oral storytelling and paj ntaub (story cloths). Within these lessons, educators and students are encouraged to reflect upon their identities and ways of knowing, particularly in relation to HMoob ways of knowing. The chapter concludes with guiding questions designed to help educators reflect on their own intersectional identities and positionalities. The chapter enables educators to effectively implement a comprehensive HMoob history and cultural studies curriculum that offers diverse learning opportunities through the perspectives of HMoob people. Educators are invited to consider and adapt these lessons as needed.

HMoob Ways of Knowing

People with Hmong identities’ sense of collective identity is linked to their ways of knowing, or epistemologies, which vary according to time and place (Vue & Mouavangsou, 2021). These places and times are the product of sociopolitical environments that forced their ancestors out of their homeland through wars and displacement. This notion is aligned with education scholar Quigley's (2019) assertion that Native identity is both constructed from within and influenced by external perspectives. Shared histories shape how HMoob people negotiate their multiple and collective identities. According to education scholars Vue and Mouavangsou (2021), HMoob epistemology includes “(a)... life, art, and culture as spatial and temporal locations of meaning-making; (b) the liberatory potential of seeking coherence in claiming HMong identity, culture, and politics as heterogeneous and fragmented by forms of oppression; and (c) the importance of spirituality in the lives of HMong” (p. 268). Their work illustrates the intrinsic connection between epistemology and collective identity, and also how HMoob ways of knowing inform their own experiences. For instance, HMoob epistemologies recognize the world as multilingual and multicultural, rooted in their historical coexistence with diverse communities. Their ancestors and society needed to know the languages and cultures of those communities around them while at the same sustaining their own. It is essential to acknowledge that while this area of study explores HMoob individual and collective identity formation, HMoob identity formation also contributes to broader perspectives of identity formation of minoritized communities. Embracing these perspectives allows students to broaden their worldviews and connect with experiences beyond their own, providing valuable insights into how identities shape their perception of the world from a HMoob perspective.

Intersectionality

HMoob ways of being and collective identity are inherently intertwined. Drawing upon Crenshaw's (1991) seminal work on intersectionality, it shed light on this connection. Intersectionality emphasizes how multiple identities intersect within the complex web of power dynamics enforced by institutions. For educators seeking to understand the experiences of HMoob Americans, Crenshaw's argument holds critical significance. Intersectionality is not confined to external power structures only, but is also relevant within the HMoob community itself. Internal power systems shape how knowledge is transmitted and produced. To truly grasp the challenges HMoob individuals face, it is essential to recognize these intricate power dynamics. Acknowledging and exploring these layered and interconnected identities is crucial for educators. It allows them to contribute to a more nuanced understanding of 'what it means to be HMoob' in the eyes of their students. Within the classroom, educators can leverage their understanding of intersectionality and power dynamics to create inclusive and supportive learning environments. By recognizing the strength and resilience of HMoob identity, educators can empower their students to embrace their multifaceted identities and challenge stereotypes, fostering a deeper sense of belonging and pride.

Collective Identity: HMoob Language, Place, Gender, and Able Bodiedness

Collective identity as HMoob individuals is multifaceted and woven from various elements of identities, including language dialects, place, gender, and able-bodiedness. While this chapter cannot comprehensively cover what constitutes collective identity, it aims to demonstrate how a few key identities inform HMoob epistemologies. HMoob histories are pivotal in shaping how HMoob people understand their collective identity. In the context of U.S.-centric education discourse, there have been many resources allocated towards documenting the narratives of the Secret War and the exodus of HMoob people from Laos to various Western countries. While these are critical aspects of the HMoob collective identity, educators must also delve into pre-Secret War and post-Secret War experiences to further provide nuanced perspectives of HMoob individual and collective identity. For example, language dialects, as a pillar of identity, deserve special recognition because they serve as a means of communication and tracing one’s ancestries and clan-specific spiritualities (Thao, 2006). Since HMoob communities have rich oral traditions, the majority of documentation regarding their lineage and ancestry has been passed down through oral narratives. The connection between dialects and places could be used to trace heritage and ancestries to HMoob people who settled in modern-day Laos in the early 1600s to 1700s. Within those settlements in Laos, HMoob people lived in clan and dialect-specific villages, with exceptions for some mixed dialects and clan villages. “Mej yog HMoob dlaab tsi?” (“What is your HMong lineage?”) and different iterations of this question can be asked to detail how language dialects, customs, and places are used to identify HMoob in the West. In the United States, the HMoob language consists of a combination of Hmoob Dawb, Moob Leeg, and Moob Ntsuab dialect speakers. While there are approximately more than 300,000 HMoob people in the United States, there is no current study on the number of HMoob dialect speakers across their different locales. Despite their differences, the dialects are mutually intelligible (Thao, 2006). After the HMoob had resettled in the United States, there were further internal migrations within the United States by the HMoob people that were driven by economic factors. These migrations continue to influence HMoob dialects and vernacular variations, resulting in communities of HMoob speakers with HMoob American Southerners or HMoob American accents. This section highlights the significance of practices informed by places and language dialects that enhance the bonds within HMoob communities worldwide.

Beyond language dialects, HMoob collective identity is shaped by the intersections of gender and able-bodiedness. Gendered identities and ways of knowing inform epistemologies, including when individuals occupy gender-specific cultural roles and functions within their communities. These roles, as well as corresponding activities and experiences, influence the ways that HMoob individuals negotiate their identities. Additionally, the academic and HMoob community discourse often portrays HMoob as primarily a spoken language-centric community. However, HMoob collective identity and ways of knowing also encompass the experiences of individuals who may not express themselves through spoken communication. For example, HMoob individuals who are considered to have speaking, physical, and cognitive challenges could be limited by this form of participation. However, their ways of being challenges the notion that HMoob identity is solely spoken, recognizing HMoob identity sustainment through non-verbal ways of being and identities. Expanding who contributes to identity formation recognizes how diverse individuals from the community sustain HMoob ways of knowing and, thus, their collective identity. These ways of knowing and identities are often neglected when considering how HMoob collective identity and ways of being are sustained throughout time and place. This broader perspective acknowledges that HMoob identities and ways of knowing encompass a spectrum of experiences.  Educators could find ways to connect and bring these different identities and ways of knowing conversation into the learning space by reflecting on their individual and collective identities.

Approach to Learning HMoob Epistemologies & Reflection Questions For Educators

In pursuing effective teaching within the framework of the model curriculum, this section underscores the significance of anchoring pedagogy in ethnic studies principles. It encourages educators to adopt an ethnic studies approach that centers on reflexivity and reflection (Tintiangco-Cubales et al., 2019). Educators taking steps to critically examine their teaching practices will help them reflect on their positionality and identities in relation to their students. An introspective journey will empower educators and students to explore and articulate values that foster critical consciousness and a positive learning environment for all learners in the classroom.

This section assists educators by presenting a set of guiding reflective questions inspired by the insights featured in the 2019 edited volume What is Ethnic Studies Pedagogy? (Tintiangco-Cubales et al., 2019). The following questions have been thoughtfully modified to help educators initiate a process of self-inquiry and examination: 

• What are my relationships with diverse communities, and how do these relationships influence my teaching?
• In what ways do dominant Eurocentric perspectives manifest in my teaching practices, and how can I challenge or diversify my teaching practices?
• How might my personal and cultural identities impact the learning experiences of my students?
• What strategies can I employ to challenge both my students and myself as an educator when exploring the lesson/unit topics?
• How have I incorporated culturally relevant, responsive, and community-oriented teaching practices within my classroom?
• Who are the students that will engage in discussions and activities related to this unit/lesson, and how can I ensure their diverse voices are heard and respected? 

Following the pedagogy of ethnic studies, educators should periodically reflect upon these questions and utilize them to support their unit lesson implementations. Doing so will assist educators in navigating the complex power dynamics within educational institutions while also prompting them to critically assess their roles as educators, mentors, and authority figures. Posing critical questions offers opportunities for a more nuanced understanding of the lesson topics while also modeling how students can engage in challenging conversations and raise questions about matters that interest them (Tolteka Cuauhtin et al., 2019). This also allows young people to connect their lived experiences and realities to the lessons.

Expanded Learning for Educators and Students

This chapter underscores the dynamic nature of the HMoob community, characterized by its rich languages, histories, and customs that are continuously changing. As educators, it is crucial to recognize the complexity of this community as it intersects with your own complex identities and positionality. These intersections can enhance and complicate your role in teaching HMoob ethnic studies lessons as you bring unique pedagogies and interpretations to the classroom. Moreover, your students’ individual narratives and identities will serve to expand and enrich the meanings of each lesson study area. By presenting opportunities for students to associate their academic identity with their other existing identities, teachers will allow for a positive shift toward wholesome education (Tintiangco-Cubales et al., 2019). Nurturing a strong sense of ethnic identity not only allows youth to build robust relationships across different communities but also reinforces their connections within their home community. Going beyond the model lessons provided requires a commitment that involves delving deeper into local HMoob communities and enabling educators to offer additional resources for student exploration outside the classroom. This type of dedication will provide vital opportunities for HMoob youths to see themselves reflected in their schools. By embracing the Hmong History and Cultural Studies Model Curriculum, students who identify as HMoob can critically examine their identities within the contexts of the lessons provided.

References

Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241-1300.

Lee, M. M. (2015). Dreams of the Hmong kingdom: The quest for legitimation in French Indochina, 1850–1960. University of Wisconsin Press.

Quigley, D. (2018). Indigenous identity construction: Enacted upon us, or within us. Social Identities. 25(5), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630.2018.1495069

Thao, Y. J. (2006). The Mong oral tradition: Cultural memory in the absence of written language. McFarland & Company, Inc.

Tintiangco-Cubales, A., Kohli, R., Sacramento, J., Henning, N., Agarwal-Rangnath, & Sleeter, C. (2019). What is ethnic studies pedagogy? (R. Tolteka Cuauhtin, M. Zaval, C. Sleeter, & W. Au, Eds.). A Rethinking Schools Publication.

Tolteka Cuauhtin, R., Zaval, M., Sleeter, C., & Au, W. (Eds). (2019). Rethinking ethnic studies. A Rethinking Schools Publication.

Vue, R., & Mouavangsou, K. N. (2021). Calling our souls home: A HMong epistemology of creating new narratives. Asian American Journal of Psychology. 12(4), 265-275. https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000273